What is Cohesion ? and its Types

Cohesion and its Types :

           Sentences or utterances in a discourse are somehow linked with each other through cohesion. Cohesion can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give it meaning. Cohesion is method by which writers sign post meaning for their readers. A cohesive text is created in many different ways.

            In Cohesion in English, M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify the five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: 

1.Reference

2.Ellipsis

 3.Substitution

4.Conjunction 

5.Lexical cohesion

1) Reference:

          There are two main referential devices that can create cohesion:

            Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to something that has been previously identified, in the text to avoid repetition. Most commonly, this is done with the help of pronouns: replacing "the taxi driver" with the pronoun "he" or "two girls" with "they". Another example can be found in formulas such as "as stated previously" or "the aforementioned" etc.

The opposite of Anaphoric reference is Cataphoric reference: It is a reference forward to something that will be mentioned later in the discourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified. 

For example:

"Here he comes, our award-winning superstar... it's Amitabh Bacchan!"

2) Ellipsis :

           Ellipsis is the use of omission to create linkages in the text. As a cohesive device, it is seen when words are omitted when they are easily recoverable from the context.

A simple conversational example:

A :Where are you going?

B : To town.

The full form of B's reply would be: "I am going to town". 

Another example is :

A : Would the govt survive he crisis ?

B : Yes. It may.

Here the full form of B's reply would be: "Yes. It may survive the crisis".

One more example :

A : Have you noticed his new car'

B : No I haven't. (the underlined part in the above is ellipted)

3) Substitution :

         In substitution, a word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted by another, more general word. 

For example :

A : "Which ice-cream would you like?"

B : "I would like the pink one "

Here "one" is used instead of repeating "ice-cream."

Using pronoun for a noun is also substitution as in the following:

The candidates are waiting. They are full of expectations

4) Conjunctions :

          Conjunctions can connect two clauses or sentences. The most basic cohesive conjunctions are and, but, if , although etc.

For example:

The college is near the bus stop and you can get a rickshaw there.

I gave him many warnings. But they fell on deaf ears.

I will teach you a lesson if you cheat me.

Put down the weapon in your hand otherwise you will die.

He was very clever. However, he could never get a gold medal.

Some other cohesive conjunctions are:

• in the first place
• not only ... but also
• as a matter of fact
• in like manner
• in addition
• in the same fashion / way
• coupled with
• in the light of
• first, second, third, next etc
• equally important
• after all
• as well as etc

For example: 

First, I will explain the concept. Next we will go to examples.

5) Lexical Cohesion :

Lexical Cohesion is achieved through an appropriate selection of vocabulary. The choice of words may be conscious or unconscious, but they make a text connected.

Halliday and Hasan identified following devices of lexical cohesion

1. Repetition, or reiteration -

          This involves the repetition of exactly same word. This is the most direct instance of lexical cohesion. It establishes a cohesive tie between two clauses or sentences.

For example:

I saw a movie last night. The movie was superb.

The repetition of the word movie signals that the same movie is being talked about.

2. Synonyms -

          Lexical cohesion is also established by synonyms instead of the same word 

For example:

I heard a sound, but I couldn't figure out where that noise came from.

Here, sound and noise are synonyms linking the two clauses.

3. Antonyms -

Antonyms, the lexical items that have opposite meanings can also be used to hold the text together.

For example: 

He fell a sleep. What woke him was a loud crash. 

The words a sleep and woke are antonyms and therefore form a cohesive relationship.

4. Use of superordination or a generic term : is also a common device of lexical cohesion. When we use a generic or superordinate term in one sentence and a hyponym or specific term in another sentence we establish a cohesive link between the two sentences.

For example:

As devout Hindus we offer different flowers to different deities. We offer marigolds to Mahalaxmi and hibiscus to Shri Ganesh.

In this example, 

flowers is a superordinate term and marigolds and hibiscus are its hyponyms. The occurrence of a superordinate term in one sentence and its hyponyms in the next sentence establishes a cohesive link between the two sentences.